Investigating the Non-Verbal Communication in Iraqi Preschool Children with Normal Development and Autism Spectrum Disorder
-
Hussein Ali Musa Al-keweledy
,
Zahra Soleymani
,
Amer Alhaideri
,
Fariba Zadeh Labbaf
,
Faeghe Shahhoseini
Abstract
Introduction: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by difficulties with language, cognition, and social interaction. The diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder, fifth edition used “spectrum” to show the variability in etiology and phenotypic levels. This study aims to compare nonverbal communication skills in normally developing and autistic children in Karbala City, Iraq.
Materials and Methods: This was a cross-sectional study. Two sets of children (ASD and normal) were matched in terms of age and socioeconomic state. A total of 50 individuals were recruited with 25 ASD and 25 normally developing children without any history of psychological abnormalities. The child’s parent/caregiver provided all the demographic information and medical history. The information was gathered from 10-min videos separately recorded for each child, regular contact with them, and continuous interviews with their parents and caregivers. The researchers developed a pre-designed data collection questionnaire according to the non-verbal skills of 3-5-year-olds, including body language, eye contact, and facial expressions. The questionnaire was filled out by the first author. Finally, the gathered data were analyzed by the SPSS software, version 25 (IBM Corp, Armonk, NY).
Results: Comparing the total scores revealed a significant difference between the ASD and normal group in gestures (P≤0.001), phonetics (P≤0.001), body language (P≤0.001), and artifacts (P≤0.001). Normally developed children scored significantly higher than ASD children in all 4 variables. However, in the maladaptive behavior (P≤0.001), the significant scores were for ASD children compared to normal children.
Conclusion: The results showed that ASD children experience difficulty in nonverbal communication skills. They also have maladaptive behaviors. The main reason for this behavior is their inability to communicate non-verbally.
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8. Mody M, Belliveau JW. Speech and language impairments in autism: Insights from behavior and neuroimaging. North American journal of medicine & science. 2013;5(3):157-161. https://doi: 10.7156/v5i3p157
9. Sánchez Pérez P, Nordahl-Hansen A, Kaale A. The role of context in language development for children with autism spectrum disorder. Frontiers in psychology. 2020;11:563925. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.563925
10. Kahveci G, Bulut SN. Shaping Vocal Stereotypy in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Non-aversive Communication Teaching Technique. Universal Journal of Educational Research. 2019;7(6):1448-57. https://DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2019.070612
11. Murdock LC, Cost HC, Tieso C. Measurement of social communication skills of children with autism spectrum disorders during interactions with typical peers. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2007;22(3):160-72. https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576070220030301
12. Veness C, Prior M, Bavin E, Eadie P, Cini E, Reilly S. Early indicators of autism spectrum disorders at 12 and 24 months of age: A prospective, longitudinal comparative study. Autism. 2012;16(2):163-77. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361311399936
13. Clough S, Duff MC. The role of gesture in communication and cognition: Implications for understanding and treating neurogenic communication disorders. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 2020;14:323.
14. Maljaars J, Noens I, Jansen R, Scholte E, van Berckelaer-Onnes I. Intentional communication in nonverbal and verbal low-functioning children with autism. Journal of Communication Disorders. 2011;44(6):601-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2011.07.004
15. Maljaars J, Noens I, Scholte E, van Berckelaer-Onnes I. Language in low-functioning children with autistic disorder: Differences between receptive and expressive skills and concurrent predictors of language. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2012;42(10):2181-91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1476-1
16. Jansen R, Maljaars J, Verhappen A, Zink I, Steyaert J, Noens I. Problem behavior in young children referred with language difficulties: Relations to language and intentional communication. Autism & Developmental Language Impairments. 2020;5. https://doi.org/10.1177/2396941519900076
17. Trembath D, Paynter J, Sutherland R, Tager-Flusberg H. Assessing communication in children with autism spectrum disorder who are minimally verbal. Current Developmental Disorders Reports. 2019;6(3):103-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40474-019-00171-z
18. Paul R. Interventions to improve communication in autism. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America. 2008;17(4):835-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2008.06.011
19. Pudło M, Pisula E. The relationship between gestures and non-verbal communication and attentional processing in high-functioning adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Autism & Developmental Language Impairments. 2018;3.https://doi.org/10.1177/2396941518787139
20. Farhan SA, Khan MNR, Swaron MR, Shukhon RNS, Islam MM, Razzak MA, editors. Improvement of verbal and non-verbal communication skills of children with autism spectrum disorder using human robot interaction. 2021 IEEE World AI IoT Congress (AIIoT); 2021: IEEE. https:// doi: 10.1109/AIIoT52608.2021.9454193
21. Rose V, Trembath D, Keen D, Paynter J. The proportion of minimally verbal children with autism spectrum disorder in a community‐based early intervention programme. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 2016;60(5):464-77. https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12284
22. Tager‐Flusberg H, Kasari C. Minimally verbal school‐aged children with autism spectrum disorder: The neglected end of the spectrum. Autism research. 2013;6(6):468-78. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1329
23. McAfee O, Leong D, Bodrova E. Basics of Assessment: A Primer for Early Childhood Professionals. National Association for the Education of Young Children, Washington, 2004.
24. Hall HR, Graff JC. Maladaptive behaviors of children with autism: Parent support, stress, and coping. Issues in comprehensive pediatric nursing. 2012;35(3-4):194-214. https://doi.org/10.3109/01460862.2012.734210
25. McNeill D. Recurrent gestures: How the mental reflects the social. Gesture. 2018;17(2):229-44. https://doi.org/10.1075/gest.18012.mcn
26. Hodge G. Gesture in Multiparty Interaction, Emily Shaw, Gallaudet University Press, Washington, DC (2019), 268 pp., ISBN 978-1-944-83843-0, 80 USD. Journal of Pragmatics. 2020;157:145-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2019.12.009
27. Perrault A, Chaby L, Bigouret F, Oppetit A, Cohen D, Plaza M, et al. Comprehension of conventional gestures in typical children, children with autism spectrum disorders and children with language disorders. Neuropsychiatrie de l'Enfance et de l'Adolescence. 2019;67(1):1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurenf.2018.03.002
28. Kasirer A, Adi-Japha E, Mashal N. Verbal and figural creativity in children with autism spectrum disorder and typical development. Frontiers in Psychology. 2020;11:559238. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.559238
29. Kavé G, Kukulansky-Segal D, Avraham A, Herzberg O, Landa J. Searching for the right word: Performance on four word-retrieval tasks across childhood. Child Neuropsychology. 2010;16(6):549-63. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2010.485124
30. Frith U, Snowling M. Reading for meaning and reading for sound in autistic and dyslexic children. British journal of developmental psychology. 1983;1(4):329-42. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.1983.tb00906.x
31. Welsh MC, Pennington BF, Rogers S. Word recognition and comprehension skills in hyperlexic children. Brain and language. 1987;32(1):76-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/0093-934X(87)90118-0
32. Calhoon JA. Factors affecting the reading of rimes in words and nonwords in beginning readers with cognitive disabilities and typically developing readers: Explorations in similarity and difference in word recognition cue use. Journal of autism and developmental disorders. 2001;31(5):491-504. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012268909286
33. Whalon KJ, Al Otaiba S, Delano ME. Evidence-based reading instruction for individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on autism and other developmental disabilities. 2009;24(1):3-16.https:// doi: 10.1177/1088357608328515
34. Mallineni S, Nutheti R, Thangadurai S, Thangadurai P. Non-verbal communication in children with visual impairment. British Journal of Visual Impairment. 2006;24(1):30-3. https://doi.org/10.1177/0264619606060033
35. Uljarevic M, Hamilton A. Recognition of emotions in autism: a formal meta-analysis. Journal of autism and developmental disorders. 2013;43(7):1517-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1695-5
36. Begeer S, Koot HM, Rieffe C, Terwogt MM, Stegge H. Emotional competence in children with autism: Diagnostic criteria and empirical evidence. Developmental Review. 2008;28(3):342-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2007.09.001
37. Volkmar FR, Mayes LC. Gaze behavior in autism. Development and Psychopathology. 1990;2(1):61-9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400000596
38. Willemsen-Swinkels SH, Buitelaar JK, Weijnen FG, van Engeland H. Timing of social gaze behavior in children with a pervasive developmental disorder. Journal of autism and developmental disorders. 1998;28(3):199-210. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026013304241
39. van der Geest JN, Kemner C, Camfferman G, Verbaten M, van Engeland H. Looking at images with human figures: Comparison between autistic and normal children. Journal of autism and developmental disorders. 2002;32(2):69-75. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014832420206
40. Dellapiazza F, Vernhet C, Blanc N, Miot S, Schmidt R, Baghdadli A. Links between sensory processing, adaptive behaviours, and attention in children with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review. Psychiatry Research. 2018;270:78-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.09.023
41. Dellapiazza F, Michelon C, Oreve M-J, Robel L, Schoenberger M, Chatel C, et al. The impact of atypical sensory processing on adaptive functioning and maladaptive behaviors in autism spectrum disorder during childhood: results from the ELENA cohort. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2020;50(6):2142-52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-03970-w
42. Lane AE, Young RL, Baker AE, Angley MT. Sensory processing subtypes in autism: Association with adaptive behavior. Journal of autism and developmental disorders. 2010;40(1):112-22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0840-2
43. Tseng M-H, Fu C-P, Cermak SA, Lu L, Shieh J-Y. Emotional and behavioral problems in preschool children with autism: Relationship with sensory processing dysfunction. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2011;5(4):1441-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2011.02.004
2. Jeste SS, Geschwind DH. Disentangling the heterogeneity of autism spectrum disorder through genetic findings. Nature Reviews Neurology. 2014;10(2):74-81. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2013.278
3. Fombonne, E. (2018), Editorial: The rising prevalence of autism. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 59: 717-720. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12941
4. Harrison JE, Weber S, Jakob R, Chute CG. ICD-11: an international classification of diseases for the twenty-first century. BMC medical informatics and decision making. 2021;21(6):1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12911-021-01534-6
5. Manning-Courtney P, Murray D, Currans K, Johnson H, Bing N, Kroeger-Geoppinger K, Sorensen R, Bass J, Reinhold J, Johnson A, Messerschmidt T. Autism spectrum disorders. Current problems in pediatric and adolescent health care. 2013; 1;43(1):2-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cppeds.2012.08.001
6. Lauritsen MB. Autism spectrum disorders. European child & adolescent psychiatry. 2013;22(1):37-42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-012-0359-5
7. Elder JH, Kreider CM, Brasher SN, Ansell M. Clinical impact of early diagnosis of autism on the prognosis and parent–child relationships. Psychology research and behavior management. 2017; 24(10): 283-292. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S117499.
8. Mody M, Belliveau JW. Speech and language impairments in autism: Insights from behavior and neuroimaging. North American journal of medicine & science. 2013;5(3):157-161. https://doi: 10.7156/v5i3p157
9. Sánchez Pérez P, Nordahl-Hansen A, Kaale A. The role of context in language development for children with autism spectrum disorder. Frontiers in psychology. 2020;11:563925. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.563925
10. Kahveci G, Bulut SN. Shaping Vocal Stereotypy in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Non-aversive Communication Teaching Technique. Universal Journal of Educational Research. 2019;7(6):1448-57. https://DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2019.070612
11. Murdock LC, Cost HC, Tieso C. Measurement of social communication skills of children with autism spectrum disorders during interactions with typical peers. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2007;22(3):160-72. https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576070220030301
12. Veness C, Prior M, Bavin E, Eadie P, Cini E, Reilly S. Early indicators of autism spectrum disorders at 12 and 24 months of age: A prospective, longitudinal comparative study. Autism. 2012;16(2):163-77. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361311399936
13. Clough S, Duff MC. The role of gesture in communication and cognition: Implications for understanding and treating neurogenic communication disorders. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 2020;14:323.
14. Maljaars J, Noens I, Jansen R, Scholte E, van Berckelaer-Onnes I. Intentional communication in nonverbal and verbal low-functioning children with autism. Journal of Communication Disorders. 2011;44(6):601-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2011.07.004
15. Maljaars J, Noens I, Scholte E, van Berckelaer-Onnes I. Language in low-functioning children with autistic disorder: Differences between receptive and expressive skills and concurrent predictors of language. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2012;42(10):2181-91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1476-1
16. Jansen R, Maljaars J, Verhappen A, Zink I, Steyaert J, Noens I. Problem behavior in young children referred with language difficulties: Relations to language and intentional communication. Autism & Developmental Language Impairments. 2020;5. https://doi.org/10.1177/2396941519900076
17. Trembath D, Paynter J, Sutherland R, Tager-Flusberg H. Assessing communication in children with autism spectrum disorder who are minimally verbal. Current Developmental Disorders Reports. 2019;6(3):103-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40474-019-00171-z
18. Paul R. Interventions to improve communication in autism. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America. 2008;17(4):835-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2008.06.011
19. Pudło M, Pisula E. The relationship between gestures and non-verbal communication and attentional processing in high-functioning adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Autism & Developmental Language Impairments. 2018;3.https://doi.org/10.1177/2396941518787139
20. Farhan SA, Khan MNR, Swaron MR, Shukhon RNS, Islam MM, Razzak MA, editors. Improvement of verbal and non-verbal communication skills of children with autism spectrum disorder using human robot interaction. 2021 IEEE World AI IoT Congress (AIIoT); 2021: IEEE. https:// doi: 10.1109/AIIoT52608.2021.9454193
21. Rose V, Trembath D, Keen D, Paynter J. The proportion of minimally verbal children with autism spectrum disorder in a community‐based early intervention programme. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 2016;60(5):464-77. https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12284
22. Tager‐Flusberg H, Kasari C. Minimally verbal school‐aged children with autism spectrum disorder: The neglected end of the spectrum. Autism research. 2013;6(6):468-78. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1329
23. McAfee O, Leong D, Bodrova E. Basics of Assessment: A Primer for Early Childhood Professionals. National Association for the Education of Young Children, Washington, 2004.
24. Hall HR, Graff JC. Maladaptive behaviors of children with autism: Parent support, stress, and coping. Issues in comprehensive pediatric nursing. 2012;35(3-4):194-214. https://doi.org/10.3109/01460862.2012.734210
25. McNeill D. Recurrent gestures: How the mental reflects the social. Gesture. 2018;17(2):229-44. https://doi.org/10.1075/gest.18012.mcn
26. Hodge G. Gesture in Multiparty Interaction, Emily Shaw, Gallaudet University Press, Washington, DC (2019), 268 pp., ISBN 978-1-944-83843-0, 80 USD. Journal of Pragmatics. 2020;157:145-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2019.12.009
27. Perrault A, Chaby L, Bigouret F, Oppetit A, Cohen D, Plaza M, et al. Comprehension of conventional gestures in typical children, children with autism spectrum disorders and children with language disorders. Neuropsychiatrie de l'Enfance et de l'Adolescence. 2019;67(1):1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurenf.2018.03.002
28. Kasirer A, Adi-Japha E, Mashal N. Verbal and figural creativity in children with autism spectrum disorder and typical development. Frontiers in Psychology. 2020;11:559238. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.559238
29. Kavé G, Kukulansky-Segal D, Avraham A, Herzberg O, Landa J. Searching for the right word: Performance on four word-retrieval tasks across childhood. Child Neuropsychology. 2010;16(6):549-63. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2010.485124
30. Frith U, Snowling M. Reading for meaning and reading for sound in autistic and dyslexic children. British journal of developmental psychology. 1983;1(4):329-42. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.1983.tb00906.x
31. Welsh MC, Pennington BF, Rogers S. Word recognition and comprehension skills in hyperlexic children. Brain and language. 1987;32(1):76-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/0093-934X(87)90118-0
32. Calhoon JA. Factors affecting the reading of rimes in words and nonwords in beginning readers with cognitive disabilities and typically developing readers: Explorations in similarity and difference in word recognition cue use. Journal of autism and developmental disorders. 2001;31(5):491-504. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012268909286
33. Whalon KJ, Al Otaiba S, Delano ME. Evidence-based reading instruction for individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on autism and other developmental disabilities. 2009;24(1):3-16.https:// doi: 10.1177/1088357608328515
34. Mallineni S, Nutheti R, Thangadurai S, Thangadurai P. Non-verbal communication in children with visual impairment. British Journal of Visual Impairment. 2006;24(1):30-3. https://doi.org/10.1177/0264619606060033
35. Uljarevic M, Hamilton A. Recognition of emotions in autism: a formal meta-analysis. Journal of autism and developmental disorders. 2013;43(7):1517-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1695-5
36. Begeer S, Koot HM, Rieffe C, Terwogt MM, Stegge H. Emotional competence in children with autism: Diagnostic criteria and empirical evidence. Developmental Review. 2008;28(3):342-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2007.09.001
37. Volkmar FR, Mayes LC. Gaze behavior in autism. Development and Psychopathology. 1990;2(1):61-9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400000596
38. Willemsen-Swinkels SH, Buitelaar JK, Weijnen FG, van Engeland H. Timing of social gaze behavior in children with a pervasive developmental disorder. Journal of autism and developmental disorders. 1998;28(3):199-210. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026013304241
39. van der Geest JN, Kemner C, Camfferman G, Verbaten M, van Engeland H. Looking at images with human figures: Comparison between autistic and normal children. Journal of autism and developmental disorders. 2002;32(2):69-75. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014832420206
40. Dellapiazza F, Vernhet C, Blanc N, Miot S, Schmidt R, Baghdadli A. Links between sensory processing, adaptive behaviours, and attention in children with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review. Psychiatry Research. 2018;270:78-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.09.023
41. Dellapiazza F, Michelon C, Oreve M-J, Robel L, Schoenberger M, Chatel C, et al. The impact of atypical sensory processing on adaptive functioning and maladaptive behaviors in autism spectrum disorder during childhood: results from the ELENA cohort. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2020;50(6):2142-52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-03970-w
42. Lane AE, Young RL, Baker AE, Angley MT. Sensory processing subtypes in autism: Association with adaptive behavior. Journal of autism and developmental disorders. 2010;40(1):112-22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0840-2
43. Tseng M-H, Fu C-P, Cermak SA, Lu L, Shieh J-Y. Emotional and behavioral problems in preschool children with autism: Relationship with sensory processing dysfunction. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2011;5(4):1441-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2011.02.004
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 17 No 4 (2023) | |
| Section | Research Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/jmr.v17i4.13893 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Autism spectrum disorder Nonverbal communication Preschool children Iraq | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Al-keweledy H, Soleymani Z, Alhaideri A, Zadeh Labbaf F, Shahhoseini F. Investigating the Non-Verbal Communication in Iraqi Preschool Children with Normal Development and Autism Spectrum Disorder. jmr. 2023;17(4):438-449.
