Updates on Optical Strategies of Myopia Control
,
Abstract
Myopia has become a pandemic disease in the past few years and its sight-threatening consequences associated with high myopia have been a challenging issue for most public health societies. Controlling myopia progression has also become a global concern for many people particularly, parents of myopic children. Accordingly, a large body of work has been devoted to considering different optical and non-optical methods to prevent or retard myopia progression. Different optical strategies such as sunder correction, monofocal spectacles or contact lenses, bifocal or progressive spectacle lenses, multifocal contact lenses, gas-permeable (GP) contact lenses, and orthokeratology (ortho-K) have been proposed to slow down the myopia progression. Although the effectiveness of these treatment strategies has been vastly studied, there are some debates concerning the most efficient method in controlling myopia progression. The present study reviewed the current optical therapies to control the progression of myopia. A literature review revealed that optical strategies, such as myopic under correction, monofocal spectacles or contact lenses, GP contact lenses, and bifocal and multifocal spectacle lenses did not provide a clinically significant reduction in myopia progression. In contrast, ortho-K and newly introduced multifocal soft contact lenses may significantly slow myopia progression.
1. Holden BA, Fricke TR, Wilson DA, Jong M, Naidoo KS, Sankaridurg P, et al. Global prevalence of myopia and high myopia and temporal trends from 2000 through 2050. Ophthalmology. 2016;123(5):1036-42.
2. Leo S-W, Young TL. An evidence-based update on myopia and interventions to retard its progression. Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2011;15(2):181-9.
3. Masoud K-N, Taghi N, Ali G. Latest Updates on Pharmacological Management of Myopia Control; a review article. Journal of Modern Rehabilitation. 2021;under publication.
4. Wu P-C, Chuang M-N, Choi J, Chen H, Wu G, Ohno-Matsui K, et al. Update in myopia and treatment strategy of atropine use in myopia control. Eye. 2019;33(1):3-13.
5. Chua SY, Sabanayagam C, Cheung YB, Chia A, Valenzuela RK, Tan D, et al. Age of onset of myopia predicts risk of high myopia in later childhood in myopic Singapore children. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics. 2016;36(4):388-94.
6. Hyman L, Gwiazda J, Hussein M, Norton TT, Wang Y, Marsh-Tootle W, et al. Relationship of age, sex, and ethnicity with myopia progression and axial elongation in the correction of myopia evaluation trial. Archives of ophthalmology. 2005;123(7):977-87.
7. Leo SW. Current approaches to myopia control. Current opinion in ophthalmology. 2017;28(3):267-75.
8. Pärssinen O, Kauppinen M. Risk factors for high myopia: a 22‐year follow‐up study from childhood to adulthood. Acta ophthalmologica. 2019;97(5):510-8.
9. Group C. Myopia stabilization and associated factors among participants in the Correction of Myopia Evaluation Trial (COMET). Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2013;54(13):7871.
10. Liang C-L, Yen E, Su J-Y, Liu C, Chang T-Y, Park N, et al. Impact of family history of high myopia on level and onset of myopia. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2004;45(10):3446-52.
11. Jones-Jordan LA, Sinnott LT, Manny RE, Cotter SA, Kleinstein RN, Mutti DO, et al. Early childhood refractive error and parental history of myopia as predictors of myopia. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2010;51(1):115-21.
12. Kurtz D, Hyman L, Gwiazda JE, Manny R, Dong LM, Wang Y, et al. Role of parental myopia in the progression of myopia and its interaction with treatment in COMET children. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2007;48(2):562-70.
13. Zhang X, Qu X, Zhou X. Association between parental myopia and the risk of myopia in a child. Experimental and therapeutic medicine. 2015;9(6):2420-8.
14. Saw S-M, Chua W-H, Hong C-Y, Wu H-M, Chan W-Y, Chia K-S, et al. Nearwork in early-onset myopia. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2002;43(2):332-9.
15. Grzybowski A, Kanclerz P, Tsubota K, Lanca C, Saw SM. A review on the epidemiology of myopia in school children worldwide. BMC Ophthalmol. 2020;20(1):27.
16. Jones-Jordan LA, Mitchell GL, Cotter SA, Kleinstein RN, Manny RE, Mutti DO, et al. Visual activity before and after the onset of juvenile myopia. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2011;52(3):1841-50.
17. Lu B, Congdon N, Liu X, Choi K, Lam DS, Zhang M, et al. Associations between near work, outdoor activity, and myopia among adolescent students in rural China: the Xichang Pediatric Refractive Error Study report no. 2. Archives of ophthalmology. 2009;127(6):769-75.
18. Wu P-C, Tsai C-L, Wu H-L, Yang Y-H, Kuo H-K. Outdoor activity during class recess reduces myopia onset and progression in school children. Ophthalmology. 2013;120(5):1080-5.
19. Wu P-C, Chen C-T, Lin K-K, Sun C-C, Kuo C-N, Huang H-M, et al. Myopia prevention and outdoor light intensity in a school-based cluster randomized trial. Ophthalmology. 2018;125(8):1239-50.
20. Lingham G, Mackey DA, Lucas R, Yazar S. How does spending time outdoors protect against myopia? A review. British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2020;104(5):593-9.
21. Li L, Zhong H, Li J, Li CR, Pan CW. Incidence of myopia and biometric characteristics of premyopic eyes among Chinese children and adolescents. BMC Ophthalmol. 2018;18(1):178.
22. Rudnicka AR, Kapetanakis VV, Wathern AK, Logan NS, Gilmartin B, Whincup PH, et al. Global variations and time trends in the prevalence of childhood myopia, a systematic review and quantitative meta-analysis: implications for aetiology and early prevention. British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016;100(7):882-90.
23. Donovan L, Sankaridurg P, Ho A, Naduvilath T, Smith III EL, Holden BA. Myopia progression rates in urban children wearing single-vision spectacles. Optometry and vision science: official publication of the American Academy of Optometry. 2012;89(1):27.
24. Koomson NY, Amedo AO, Opoku-Baah C, Ampeh PB, Ankamah E, Bonsu K. Relationship between Reduced Accommodative Lag and Myopia Progression. Optom Vis Sci. 2016;93(7):683-91.
25. Pan C-W, Wu R-K, Liu H, Li J, Zhong H. Types of lamp for homework and myopia among Chinese school-aged children. Ophthalmic epidemiology. 2018;25(3):250-6.
26. Gong Y, Zhang X, Tian D, Wang D, Xiao G. Parental myopia, near work, hours of sleep and myopia in Chinese children. Health. 2014;2014.
27. Ang M, Flanagan JL, Wong CW, Müller A, Davis A, Keys D, et al. Myopia control strategies recommendations from the 2018 WHO/IAPB/BHVI Meeting on Myopia. British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2020;104(11):1482-7.
28. Mutti DO, Hayes JR, Mitchell GL, Jones LA, Moeschberger ML, Cotter SA, et al. Refractive error, axial length, and relative peripheral refractive error before and after the onset of myopia. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2007;48(6):2510-9.
29. Mutti DO, Sinnott LT, Mitchell GL, Jones-Jordan LA, Moeschberger ML, Cotter SA, et al. Relative peripheral refractive error and the risk of onset and progression of myopia in children. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2011;52(1):199-205.
30. Sankaridurg P, Donovan L, Varnas S, Ho A, Chen X, Martinez A, et al. Spectacle lenses designed to reduce progression of myopia: 12-month results. Optometry and vision science: official publication of the American Academy of Optometry. 2010;87(9):631.
31. Fedtke C, Ehrmann K, Holden BA. A review of peripheral refraction techniques. Optometry and vision science. 2009;86(5):429-46.
32. Lin Z, Martinez A, Chen X, Li L, Sankaridurg P, Holden BA, et al. Peripheral defocus with single-vision spectacle lenses in myopic children. Optometry and Vision Science. 2010;87(1):4-9.
33. Kang P. Optical and pharmacological strategies of myopia control. Clinical and Experimental Optometry. 2018;101(3):321-32.
34. Walline JJ, Jones LA, Mutti DO, Zadnik K. A Randomized Trial of the Effects of Rigid Contact Lenses on MyopiaProgression. Archives of ophthalmology. 2004;122(12):1760-6.
35. Walline JJ, Lindsley KB, Vedula SS, Cotter SA, Mutti DO, Ng SM, et al. Interventions to slow progression of myopia in children. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020(1).
36. Katz J, Schein OD, Levy B, Cruiscullo T, Saw S-M, Rajan U, et al. A randomized trial of rigid gas permeable contact lenses to reduce progression of children’s myopia. American journal of ophthalmology. 2003;136(1):82-90.
37. Schaeffel F, Glasser A, Howland HC. Accommodation, refractive error and eye growth in chickens. Vision research. 1988;28(5):639-57.
38. Chung K, Mohidin N, O’Leary DJ. Undercorrection of myopia enhances rather than inhibits myopia progression. Vision research. 2002;42(22):2555-9.
39. Vasudevan B, Esposito C, Peterson C, Coronado C, Ciuffreda KJ. Under-correction of human myopia–Is it myopigenic?: A retrospective analysis of clinical refraction data. Journal of optometry. 2014;7(3):147-52.
40. Adler D, Millodot M. The possible effect of undercorrection on myopic progression in children. Clinical and Experimental Optometry. 2006;89(5):315-21.
41. Gwiazda J, Hyman L, Hussein M, Everett D, Norton TT, Kurtz D, et al. A randomized clinical trial of progressive addition lenses versus single vision lenses on the progression of myopia in children. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2003;44(4):1492-500.
42. Gwiazda J, Thorn F, Bauer J, Held R. Myopic children show insufficient accommodative response to blur. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 1993;34(3):690-4.
43. Cheng D, Woo GC, Schmid KL. Bifocal lens control of myopic progression in children. Clinical and Experimental Optometry. 2011;94(1):24-32.
44. Group CoMETSGftPEDI. Progressive-addition lenses versus single-vision lenses for slowing progression of myopia in children with high accommodative lag and near esophoria. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2011;52(5):2749-57.
45. Cheng D, Woo GC, Drobe B, Schmid KL. Effect of bifocal and prismatic bifocal spectacles on myopia progression in children: three-year results of a randomized clinical trial. JAMA ophthalmology. 2014;132(3):258-64.
46. Berntsen DA, Sinnott LT, Mutti DO, Zadnik K. A randomized trial using progressive addition lenses to evaluate theories of myopia progression in children with a high lag of accommodation. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2012;53(2):640-9.
47. Anstice NS, Phillips JR. Effect of dual-focus soft contact lens wear on axial myopia progression in children. Ophthalmology. 2011;118(6):1152-61.
48. Walline JJ, Walker MK, Mutti DO, Jones-Jordan LA, Sinnott LT, Giannoni AG, et al. Effect of high add power, medium add power, or single-vision contact lenses on myopia progression in children: the BLINK randomized clinical trial. Jama. 2020;324(6):571-80.
49. Aller TA, Liu M, Wildsoet CF. Myopia control with bifocal contact lenses: a randomized clinical trial. Optometry and Vision Science. 2016;93(4):344-52.
50. Food, Administration D. FDA approves first contact lens indicated to slow the progression of nearsightedness in children. 2020.
51. Ruiz-Pomeda A, Pérez-Sánchez B, Valls I, Prieto-Garrido FL, Gutiérrez-Ortega R, Villa-Collar C. MiSight Assessment Study Spain (MASS). A 2-year randomized clinical trial. Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology. 2018;256(5):1011-21.
52. Chamberlain P, Peixoto-de-Matos SC, Logan NS, Ngo C, Jones D, Young G. A 3-year randomized clinical trial of MiSight lenses for myopia control. Optometry and Vision Science. 2019;96(8):556-67.
53. Swarbrick HA. Orthokeratology review and update. Clinical and Experimental Optometry. 2006;89(3):124-43.
54. Cheung SW, Cho P, Fan D. Asymmetrical increase in axial length in the two eyes of a monocular orthokeratology patient. Optometry and vision science. 2004;81(9):653-6.
55. Cho P, Cheung SW, Edwards M. The longitudinal orthokeratology research in children (LORIC) in Hong Kong: a pilot study on refractive changes and myopic control. Current eye research. 2005;30(1):71-80.
56. Kang P, Swarbrick H. New perspective on myopia control with orthokeratology. Optometry and Vision Science. 2016;93(5):497-503.
57. Kang P, Swarbrick H. Time course of the effects of orthokeratology on peripheral refraction and corneal topography. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics. 2013;33(3):277-82.
58. Hiraoka T, Kakita T, Okamoto F, Takahashi H, Oshika T. Long-term effect of overnight orthokeratology on axial length elongation in childhood myopia: a 5-year follow-up study. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2012;53(7):3913-9.
59. Charm J, Cho P. High myopia–partial reduction ortho-k: a 2-year randomized study. Optometry and Vision Science. 2013;90(6):530-9.
60. Liu YM, Xie P. The safety of orthokeratology—a systematic review. Eye & contact lens. 2016;42(1):35.
2. Leo S-W, Young TL. An evidence-based update on myopia and interventions to retard its progression. Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2011;15(2):181-9.
3. Masoud K-N, Taghi N, Ali G. Latest Updates on Pharmacological Management of Myopia Control; a review article. Journal of Modern Rehabilitation. 2021;under publication.
4. Wu P-C, Chuang M-N, Choi J, Chen H, Wu G, Ohno-Matsui K, et al. Update in myopia and treatment strategy of atropine use in myopia control. Eye. 2019;33(1):3-13.
5. Chua SY, Sabanayagam C, Cheung YB, Chia A, Valenzuela RK, Tan D, et al. Age of onset of myopia predicts risk of high myopia in later childhood in myopic Singapore children. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics. 2016;36(4):388-94.
6. Hyman L, Gwiazda J, Hussein M, Norton TT, Wang Y, Marsh-Tootle W, et al. Relationship of age, sex, and ethnicity with myopia progression and axial elongation in the correction of myopia evaluation trial. Archives of ophthalmology. 2005;123(7):977-87.
7. Leo SW. Current approaches to myopia control. Current opinion in ophthalmology. 2017;28(3):267-75.
8. Pärssinen O, Kauppinen M. Risk factors for high myopia: a 22‐year follow‐up study from childhood to adulthood. Acta ophthalmologica. 2019;97(5):510-8.
9. Group C. Myopia stabilization and associated factors among participants in the Correction of Myopia Evaluation Trial (COMET). Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2013;54(13):7871.
10. Liang C-L, Yen E, Su J-Y, Liu C, Chang T-Y, Park N, et al. Impact of family history of high myopia on level and onset of myopia. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2004;45(10):3446-52.
11. Jones-Jordan LA, Sinnott LT, Manny RE, Cotter SA, Kleinstein RN, Mutti DO, et al. Early childhood refractive error and parental history of myopia as predictors of myopia. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2010;51(1):115-21.
12. Kurtz D, Hyman L, Gwiazda JE, Manny R, Dong LM, Wang Y, et al. Role of parental myopia in the progression of myopia and its interaction with treatment in COMET children. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2007;48(2):562-70.
13. Zhang X, Qu X, Zhou X. Association between parental myopia and the risk of myopia in a child. Experimental and therapeutic medicine. 2015;9(6):2420-8.
14. Saw S-M, Chua W-H, Hong C-Y, Wu H-M, Chan W-Y, Chia K-S, et al. Nearwork in early-onset myopia. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2002;43(2):332-9.
15. Grzybowski A, Kanclerz P, Tsubota K, Lanca C, Saw SM. A review on the epidemiology of myopia in school children worldwide. BMC Ophthalmol. 2020;20(1):27.
16. Jones-Jordan LA, Mitchell GL, Cotter SA, Kleinstein RN, Manny RE, Mutti DO, et al. Visual activity before and after the onset of juvenile myopia. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2011;52(3):1841-50.
17. Lu B, Congdon N, Liu X, Choi K, Lam DS, Zhang M, et al. Associations between near work, outdoor activity, and myopia among adolescent students in rural China: the Xichang Pediatric Refractive Error Study report no. 2. Archives of ophthalmology. 2009;127(6):769-75.
18. Wu P-C, Tsai C-L, Wu H-L, Yang Y-H, Kuo H-K. Outdoor activity during class recess reduces myopia onset and progression in school children. Ophthalmology. 2013;120(5):1080-5.
19. Wu P-C, Chen C-T, Lin K-K, Sun C-C, Kuo C-N, Huang H-M, et al. Myopia prevention and outdoor light intensity in a school-based cluster randomized trial. Ophthalmology. 2018;125(8):1239-50.
20. Lingham G, Mackey DA, Lucas R, Yazar S. How does spending time outdoors protect against myopia? A review. British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2020;104(5):593-9.
21. Li L, Zhong H, Li J, Li CR, Pan CW. Incidence of myopia and biometric characteristics of premyopic eyes among Chinese children and adolescents. BMC Ophthalmol. 2018;18(1):178.
22. Rudnicka AR, Kapetanakis VV, Wathern AK, Logan NS, Gilmartin B, Whincup PH, et al. Global variations and time trends in the prevalence of childhood myopia, a systematic review and quantitative meta-analysis: implications for aetiology and early prevention. British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016;100(7):882-90.
23. Donovan L, Sankaridurg P, Ho A, Naduvilath T, Smith III EL, Holden BA. Myopia progression rates in urban children wearing single-vision spectacles. Optometry and vision science: official publication of the American Academy of Optometry. 2012;89(1):27.
24. Koomson NY, Amedo AO, Opoku-Baah C, Ampeh PB, Ankamah E, Bonsu K. Relationship between Reduced Accommodative Lag and Myopia Progression. Optom Vis Sci. 2016;93(7):683-91.
25. Pan C-W, Wu R-K, Liu H, Li J, Zhong H. Types of lamp for homework and myopia among Chinese school-aged children. Ophthalmic epidemiology. 2018;25(3):250-6.
26. Gong Y, Zhang X, Tian D, Wang D, Xiao G. Parental myopia, near work, hours of sleep and myopia in Chinese children. Health. 2014;2014.
27. Ang M, Flanagan JL, Wong CW, Müller A, Davis A, Keys D, et al. Myopia control strategies recommendations from the 2018 WHO/IAPB/BHVI Meeting on Myopia. British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2020;104(11):1482-7.
28. Mutti DO, Hayes JR, Mitchell GL, Jones LA, Moeschberger ML, Cotter SA, et al. Refractive error, axial length, and relative peripheral refractive error before and after the onset of myopia. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2007;48(6):2510-9.
29. Mutti DO, Sinnott LT, Mitchell GL, Jones-Jordan LA, Moeschberger ML, Cotter SA, et al. Relative peripheral refractive error and the risk of onset and progression of myopia in children. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2011;52(1):199-205.
30. Sankaridurg P, Donovan L, Varnas S, Ho A, Chen X, Martinez A, et al. Spectacle lenses designed to reduce progression of myopia: 12-month results. Optometry and vision science: official publication of the American Academy of Optometry. 2010;87(9):631.
31. Fedtke C, Ehrmann K, Holden BA. A review of peripheral refraction techniques. Optometry and vision science. 2009;86(5):429-46.
32. Lin Z, Martinez A, Chen X, Li L, Sankaridurg P, Holden BA, et al. Peripheral defocus with single-vision spectacle lenses in myopic children. Optometry and Vision Science. 2010;87(1):4-9.
33. Kang P. Optical and pharmacological strategies of myopia control. Clinical and Experimental Optometry. 2018;101(3):321-32.
34. Walline JJ, Jones LA, Mutti DO, Zadnik K. A Randomized Trial of the Effects of Rigid Contact Lenses on MyopiaProgression. Archives of ophthalmology. 2004;122(12):1760-6.
35. Walline JJ, Lindsley KB, Vedula SS, Cotter SA, Mutti DO, Ng SM, et al. Interventions to slow progression of myopia in children. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020(1).
36. Katz J, Schein OD, Levy B, Cruiscullo T, Saw S-M, Rajan U, et al. A randomized trial of rigid gas permeable contact lenses to reduce progression of children’s myopia. American journal of ophthalmology. 2003;136(1):82-90.
37. Schaeffel F, Glasser A, Howland HC. Accommodation, refractive error and eye growth in chickens. Vision research. 1988;28(5):639-57.
38. Chung K, Mohidin N, O’Leary DJ. Undercorrection of myopia enhances rather than inhibits myopia progression. Vision research. 2002;42(22):2555-9.
39. Vasudevan B, Esposito C, Peterson C, Coronado C, Ciuffreda KJ. Under-correction of human myopia–Is it myopigenic?: A retrospective analysis of clinical refraction data. Journal of optometry. 2014;7(3):147-52.
40. Adler D, Millodot M. The possible effect of undercorrection on myopic progression in children. Clinical and Experimental Optometry. 2006;89(5):315-21.
41. Gwiazda J, Hyman L, Hussein M, Everett D, Norton TT, Kurtz D, et al. A randomized clinical trial of progressive addition lenses versus single vision lenses on the progression of myopia in children. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2003;44(4):1492-500.
42. Gwiazda J, Thorn F, Bauer J, Held R. Myopic children show insufficient accommodative response to blur. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 1993;34(3):690-4.
43. Cheng D, Woo GC, Schmid KL. Bifocal lens control of myopic progression in children. Clinical and Experimental Optometry. 2011;94(1):24-32.
44. Group CoMETSGftPEDI. Progressive-addition lenses versus single-vision lenses for slowing progression of myopia in children with high accommodative lag and near esophoria. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2011;52(5):2749-57.
45. Cheng D, Woo GC, Drobe B, Schmid KL. Effect of bifocal and prismatic bifocal spectacles on myopia progression in children: three-year results of a randomized clinical trial. JAMA ophthalmology. 2014;132(3):258-64.
46. Berntsen DA, Sinnott LT, Mutti DO, Zadnik K. A randomized trial using progressive addition lenses to evaluate theories of myopia progression in children with a high lag of accommodation. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2012;53(2):640-9.
47. Anstice NS, Phillips JR. Effect of dual-focus soft contact lens wear on axial myopia progression in children. Ophthalmology. 2011;118(6):1152-61.
48. Walline JJ, Walker MK, Mutti DO, Jones-Jordan LA, Sinnott LT, Giannoni AG, et al. Effect of high add power, medium add power, or single-vision contact lenses on myopia progression in children: the BLINK randomized clinical trial. Jama. 2020;324(6):571-80.
49. Aller TA, Liu M, Wildsoet CF. Myopia control with bifocal contact lenses: a randomized clinical trial. Optometry and Vision Science. 2016;93(4):344-52.
50. Food, Administration D. FDA approves first contact lens indicated to slow the progression of nearsightedness in children. 2020.
51. Ruiz-Pomeda A, Pérez-Sánchez B, Valls I, Prieto-Garrido FL, Gutiérrez-Ortega R, Villa-Collar C. MiSight Assessment Study Spain (MASS). A 2-year randomized clinical trial. Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology. 2018;256(5):1011-21.
52. Chamberlain P, Peixoto-de-Matos SC, Logan NS, Ngo C, Jones D, Young G. A 3-year randomized clinical trial of MiSight lenses for myopia control. Optometry and Vision Science. 2019;96(8):556-67.
53. Swarbrick HA. Orthokeratology review and update. Clinical and Experimental Optometry. 2006;89(3):124-43.
54. Cheung SW, Cho P, Fan D. Asymmetrical increase in axial length in the two eyes of a monocular orthokeratology patient. Optometry and vision science. 2004;81(9):653-6.
55. Cho P, Cheung SW, Edwards M. The longitudinal orthokeratology research in children (LORIC) in Hong Kong: a pilot study on refractive changes and myopic control. Current eye research. 2005;30(1):71-80.
56. Kang P, Swarbrick H. New perspective on myopia control with orthokeratology. Optometry and Vision Science. 2016;93(5):497-503.
57. Kang P, Swarbrick H. Time course of the effects of orthokeratology on peripheral refraction and corneal topography. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics. 2013;33(3):277-82.
58. Hiraoka T, Kakita T, Okamoto F, Takahashi H, Oshika T. Long-term effect of overnight orthokeratology on axial length elongation in childhood myopia: a 5-year follow-up study. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2012;53(7):3913-9.
59. Charm J, Cho P. High myopia–partial reduction ortho-k: a 2-year randomized study. Optometry and Vision Science. 2013;90(6):530-9.
60. Liu YM, Xie P. The safety of orthokeratology—a systematic review. Eye & contact lens. 2016;42(1):35.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 16 No 4 (2022) | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/jmr.v16i4.10755 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Myopia control Myopia progression Orthokeratology (ortho-K) Multifocal spectacle lenses Multifocal contact lenses | ||
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Khorrami-Nejad M, Gheibi A, Naghdi T, Heirani M. Updates on Optical Strategies of Myopia Control. jmr. 2022;16(4):290-297.
