Effectiveness of the Combined Memory Training Program on Memory Skills and School Achievement of Children with Specific Learning Disorders: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial
,
Abstract
Introduction: Children with Specific Learning Disorders (SLD) suffer from some cognitive deficits affecting their school achievement. This study investigated the effect of the combined Working Memory Training Program (WMTP) with the Caillou program (the game-like features of computerized cognitive training programs) on memory (as a cognitive function) and academic achievement in children with SLD.
Materials and Methods: In this pilot randomized controlled trial study, 30 children with SLD, aged 8-11 years, participated. They were randomly allocated to the intervention and control groups. The intervention group received 20 training sessions in 10 weeks, each lasting 30-45 minutes. The control group only participated in the assessment sessions. The primary outcome was verbal working memory skills assessed by the digit span and letter-number sequencing subtests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, the fourth edition (WISC-IV). Also, the grades of science, literature, and mathematics were collected as the secondary outcomes. Children were assessed 3 times: baseline (pre-test), after the intervention (post-test), and 2 months after the intervention (follow-up).
Results: Working memory (digit span and letter-number sequencing scores) and mathematics grades were significantly improved in the intervention group, as compared to the control group at the post-test session (P<0.05) and remained in the follow-up session.
Conclusion: Although this combined program effectively improves working memory and mathematic grades, further research is suggested for more academic achievement.
[1]. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). Washington: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013. [DOI:10.1176/appi. books.9780890425596]
[2]. Zakopoulou V, Mavreas V, Christodoulides P, Lavidas A, Fili E, Georgiou G, et al. Specific learning difficulties: A ret-rospective study of their co morbidity and continuity as early indicators of mental disorders. Research in Develop- mental Disabilities. 2014; 35(12):3496-507. [DOI:10.1016/j. ridd.2014.07.040] [PMID]
[3]. Hallahan DP, Kauffman JM, Pullen PC. Exceptional learners: An introduction to special education. New Jersey: Prentice Hall PTR; 2011. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Exceptional_Learners/YDrXkQEACAAJ?hl=en
[4]. Baddeley A. The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2000; 4(11):417-23. [DOI:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2]
[5]. Moll K, Gobel SM, Gooch D, Landerl K, Snowling MJ. Cognitive risk factors for specific learning disorder: Processing speed, temporal processing, and working memory. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2016;49(3):272-81. [DOI:10.1177/0022219414547221] [PMID]
[6]. Luis-Ruiz S, Caldú X, Sánchez-Castañeda C, Pueyo R, Garolera M, Jurado MÁ. Is cognitive training an effective tool for improving cognitive function and real-life behaviourin healthy children and adolescents? A systematic review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 2020; 116:268-82. [DOI:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.06.019] [PMID]
[7]. Titz C, Karbach J. Working memory and executive functions: Effects of training on academic achievement. Psychological Research. 2014;78(6):852-68. [DOI:10.1007/s00426-013-0537-1] [PMID]
[8]. Maehler C, Schuchardt K. The importance of working memory for school achievement in primary school children with intellectual or learning disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2016;58:1-8. [DOI:10.1016/j.ridd.2016.08.007] [PMID]
[9]. Dunning DL, Holmes J, Gathercole SE. Does working memory training lead to generalized improvements in children with low working memory? A randomized controlled trial. Developmental Science. 2013;16(6):915-25. [DOI:10.1111/desc.12068] [PMID] [PMCID]
[10]. Spencer-Smith M, Klingberg T. Benefits of a working memory training program for inattention in daily life: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS One. 2015;10(3):e0119522. [DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0119522] [PMID] [PMCID]
[11]. Esmaili SK, Mehraban AH, Shafaroodi N, Yazdani F, Masoumi T, Zarei M. Participation in peer-play activities among children with specific learning disability: A randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy: Official Publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association. 2019;73(2):7302205110p1-7302205110p9. [DOI:10.5014/ajot.2018.028613] [PMID]
[12]. Malekpour M, Aghababaei S, Abedi A. Working memory and learning disabilities. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities. 2013; 59(1):35-46. [DOI:10.1179/2047387711Y.0000000011]
[13]. Sala G, Gobet F. Cognitive training does not enhance general cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2019; 23(1):9-20. [DOI:10.1016/j.tics.2018.10.004] [PMID]
[14]. Melby-Lervåg M, Redick TS, Hulme C. Working memory training does not improve performance on measures of intelligence or other measures of “far transfer”: Evidence from a meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of The Association for Psychological Science. 2016; 11(4):512-34. [DOI:10.1177/1745691616635612] [PMID] [PMCID]
[15]. Oldrati V, Corti C, Poggi G, Borgatti R, Urgesi C, Bardoni A. Effectiveness of Computerized Cognitive Training Programs (CCTP) with game-like features in children with or without neuropsychological disorders: A meta-analytic investigation. Neuropsychology Review. 2020; 30(1):126-41. [DOI:10.1007/s11065-020-09429-5] [PMID]
[16]. Peijnenborgh JC, Hurks PM, Aldenkamp AP, Vles JS, Hendriksen JG. Efficacy of working memory training in children and adolescents with learning disabilities: A review study and meta-analysis. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 2016;26(5-6):645-72. [PMID]
[17]. Vernucci S, Canet Juric L, Introzzi I, Richard’s MM. Working memory training in children: A review of basic methodological criteria. Psychological Reports. 2020; 123(3):605-32. [DOI:10.1177/0033294119832978] [PMID]
[18]. Dehghanizadeh M, Akbarfahimi M, Zareiyan A, Yazdani F, Khalafbeigi M, Soleimani F. Predictors of Interest in Performing Activities Among Iranian Adolescents with Cerebral Palsy. Iranian Rehabilitation Journal. 2020; 18(4):377-386. https://irj.uswr.ac.ir/article-1-1141-en.pdf [19]. Nazok N, Akbarfahimi M, Parand A. [Development and content validity of Working Memory Training Program (WMTP) in children with specific learning disorder (Persian)]. Scientific Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine. 2019; 8(1):128-39. [DOI:10.22037/JRM.2017.110658.1439]
[20]. Azimi NT. The Effectiveness of Caillou Computer Games on Working Memory and reading performance in Students with Learning disability in reading. Tehran: university of Tehran; 2014.
[21]. Wechsler D. Wechsler intelligence scale for children. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation; 2003. [DOI:10.1037/t15174-000]
[22]. Sadeghi A, Rabiee M, Abedi MR.[Validation and reliability of the wechsler intelligence scale for children- IV (Persian)]. Journal of Developmental Psychology: Iranian Psychologists. 2011; 7(28):377-86. http://jip.azad.ac.ir/article_512280_en.html?lang=fa
[23]. Tang H, Qi XL, Riley MR, Constantinidis C. Working memory capacity is enhanced by distributed prefrontal activation and invariant temporal dynamics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2019;116(14):7095-100. [DOI:10.1073/pnas.1817278116] [PMID] [PMCID]
[24]. Constantinidis C, Klingberg T. The neuroscience of working memory capacity and training. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 2016; 17(7):438-49. [DOI:10.1038/nrn.2016.43] [PMID]
[25]. Redick TS, Shipstead Z, Wiemers EA, Melby-Lervåg M, Hulme C. What’s working in working memory training? Aneducational perspective. Educational Psychology Review. 2015;27(4):617-33. [DOI:10.1007/s10648-015-9314-6] [PMID] [PMCID]
[26]. Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Oxfordshire: Taylor & Francis; 2013.https://www.google.com/books/edition/_t/cIJH0lR33bgC?hl=en&gbpv=0
[27]. Giofrè D, Stoppa E, Ferioli P, Pezzuti L, Cornoldi C. Forward and backward digit span difficulties in children with specific learning disorder. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. 2016;38(4):478-86. [PMID]
[28]. Söderqvist S, Bergman Nutley S. Working memory training is associated with long term attainments in math and reading. Frontiers in Psychology. 2015;6:1711. [DOI:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01711] [PMID] [PMCID]
[29]. Ghaffari A, Rostami HR ,Akbarfahimi M. Predictors of instrumental activities of daily living performance in patients with stroke. Occupational therapy international. 2021; Article ID 6675680,. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6675680] [PMID]]
[30]. Ghaffari A, Akbarfahimi M, Rostami HR. Discriminative factors for post-stroke depression. Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 2020; 48:101863. [DOI:10.1016/j.ajp.2019.101863] [PMID]
[31]. Rostami HR, Akbarfahimi M, Hassani Mehraban A, Akbarinia AR, Samani S. Occupation-based intervention versus rote exercise in modified constraint-induced movement therapy for patients with median and ulnar nerve injuries: A randomized controlled trial. Clinical rehabilitation. 2017;31(8):1087-97. [DOI:10.1177/0269215516672276]
[2]. Zakopoulou V, Mavreas V, Christodoulides P, Lavidas A, Fili E, Georgiou G, et al. Specific learning difficulties: A ret-rospective study of their co morbidity and continuity as early indicators of mental disorders. Research in Develop- mental Disabilities. 2014; 35(12):3496-507. [DOI:10.1016/j. ridd.2014.07.040] [PMID]
[3]. Hallahan DP, Kauffman JM, Pullen PC. Exceptional learners: An introduction to special education. New Jersey: Prentice Hall PTR; 2011. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Exceptional_Learners/YDrXkQEACAAJ?hl=en
[4]. Baddeley A. The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2000; 4(11):417-23. [DOI:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2]
[5]. Moll K, Gobel SM, Gooch D, Landerl K, Snowling MJ. Cognitive risk factors for specific learning disorder: Processing speed, temporal processing, and working memory. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2016;49(3):272-81. [DOI:10.1177/0022219414547221] [PMID]
[6]. Luis-Ruiz S, Caldú X, Sánchez-Castañeda C, Pueyo R, Garolera M, Jurado MÁ. Is cognitive training an effective tool for improving cognitive function and real-life behaviourin healthy children and adolescents? A systematic review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 2020; 116:268-82. [DOI:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.06.019] [PMID]
[7]. Titz C, Karbach J. Working memory and executive functions: Effects of training on academic achievement. Psychological Research. 2014;78(6):852-68. [DOI:10.1007/s00426-013-0537-1] [PMID]
[8]. Maehler C, Schuchardt K. The importance of working memory for school achievement in primary school children with intellectual or learning disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2016;58:1-8. [DOI:10.1016/j.ridd.2016.08.007] [PMID]
[9]. Dunning DL, Holmes J, Gathercole SE. Does working memory training lead to generalized improvements in children with low working memory? A randomized controlled trial. Developmental Science. 2013;16(6):915-25. [DOI:10.1111/desc.12068] [PMID] [PMCID]
[10]. Spencer-Smith M, Klingberg T. Benefits of a working memory training program for inattention in daily life: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS One. 2015;10(3):e0119522. [DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0119522] [PMID] [PMCID]
[11]. Esmaili SK, Mehraban AH, Shafaroodi N, Yazdani F, Masoumi T, Zarei M. Participation in peer-play activities among children with specific learning disability: A randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy: Official Publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association. 2019;73(2):7302205110p1-7302205110p9. [DOI:10.5014/ajot.2018.028613] [PMID]
[12]. Malekpour M, Aghababaei S, Abedi A. Working memory and learning disabilities. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities. 2013; 59(1):35-46. [DOI:10.1179/2047387711Y.0000000011]
[13]. Sala G, Gobet F. Cognitive training does not enhance general cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2019; 23(1):9-20. [DOI:10.1016/j.tics.2018.10.004] [PMID]
[14]. Melby-Lervåg M, Redick TS, Hulme C. Working memory training does not improve performance on measures of intelligence or other measures of “far transfer”: Evidence from a meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of The Association for Psychological Science. 2016; 11(4):512-34. [DOI:10.1177/1745691616635612] [PMID] [PMCID]
[15]. Oldrati V, Corti C, Poggi G, Borgatti R, Urgesi C, Bardoni A. Effectiveness of Computerized Cognitive Training Programs (CCTP) with game-like features in children with or without neuropsychological disorders: A meta-analytic investigation. Neuropsychology Review. 2020; 30(1):126-41. [DOI:10.1007/s11065-020-09429-5] [PMID]
[16]. Peijnenborgh JC, Hurks PM, Aldenkamp AP, Vles JS, Hendriksen JG. Efficacy of working memory training in children and adolescents with learning disabilities: A review study and meta-analysis. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 2016;26(5-6):645-72. [PMID]
[17]. Vernucci S, Canet Juric L, Introzzi I, Richard’s MM. Working memory training in children: A review of basic methodological criteria. Psychological Reports. 2020; 123(3):605-32. [DOI:10.1177/0033294119832978] [PMID]
[18]. Dehghanizadeh M, Akbarfahimi M, Zareiyan A, Yazdani F, Khalafbeigi M, Soleimani F. Predictors of Interest in Performing Activities Among Iranian Adolescents with Cerebral Palsy. Iranian Rehabilitation Journal. 2020; 18(4):377-386. https://irj.uswr.ac.ir/article-1-1141-en.pdf [19]. Nazok N, Akbarfahimi M, Parand A. [Development and content validity of Working Memory Training Program (WMTP) in children with specific learning disorder (Persian)]. Scientific Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine. 2019; 8(1):128-39. [DOI:10.22037/JRM.2017.110658.1439]
[20]. Azimi NT. The Effectiveness of Caillou Computer Games on Working Memory and reading performance in Students with Learning disability in reading. Tehran: university of Tehran; 2014.
[21]. Wechsler D. Wechsler intelligence scale for children. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation; 2003. [DOI:10.1037/t15174-000]
[22]. Sadeghi A, Rabiee M, Abedi MR.[Validation and reliability of the wechsler intelligence scale for children- IV (Persian)]. Journal of Developmental Psychology: Iranian Psychologists. 2011; 7(28):377-86. http://jip.azad.ac.ir/article_512280_en.html?lang=fa
[23]. Tang H, Qi XL, Riley MR, Constantinidis C. Working memory capacity is enhanced by distributed prefrontal activation and invariant temporal dynamics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2019;116(14):7095-100. [DOI:10.1073/pnas.1817278116] [PMID] [PMCID]
[24]. Constantinidis C, Klingberg T. The neuroscience of working memory capacity and training. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 2016; 17(7):438-49. [DOI:10.1038/nrn.2016.43] [PMID]
[25]. Redick TS, Shipstead Z, Wiemers EA, Melby-Lervåg M, Hulme C. What’s working in working memory training? Aneducational perspective. Educational Psychology Review. 2015;27(4):617-33. [DOI:10.1007/s10648-015-9314-6] [PMID] [PMCID]
[26]. Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Oxfordshire: Taylor & Francis; 2013.https://www.google.com/books/edition/_t/cIJH0lR33bgC?hl=en&gbpv=0
[27]. Giofrè D, Stoppa E, Ferioli P, Pezzuti L, Cornoldi C. Forward and backward digit span difficulties in children with specific learning disorder. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. 2016;38(4):478-86. [PMID]
[28]. Söderqvist S, Bergman Nutley S. Working memory training is associated with long term attainments in math and reading. Frontiers in Psychology. 2015;6:1711. [DOI:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01711] [PMID] [PMCID]
[29]. Ghaffari A, Rostami HR ,Akbarfahimi M. Predictors of instrumental activities of daily living performance in patients with stroke. Occupational therapy international. 2021; Article ID 6675680,. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6675680] [PMID]]
[30]. Ghaffari A, Akbarfahimi M, Rostami HR. Discriminative factors for post-stroke depression. Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 2020; 48:101863. [DOI:10.1016/j.ajp.2019.101863] [PMID]
[31]. Rostami HR, Akbarfahimi M, Hassani Mehraban A, Akbarinia AR, Samani S. Occupation-based intervention versus rote exercise in modified constraint-induced movement therapy for patients with median and ulnar nerve injuries: A randomized controlled trial. Clinical rehabilitation. 2017;31(8):1087-97. [DOI:10.1177/0269215516672276]
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 16 No 2 (2022) | |
| Section | Research Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/jmr.v16i2.9304 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Memory training Computerized training Specific learning disorder Children School achievement | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
|
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Nazok N, Akbarfahimi M, Ghaffari A, Parand A. Effectiveness of the Combined Memory Training Program on Memory Skills and School Achievement of Children with Specific Learning Disorders: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial. jmr. 2022;16(2):170-179.
