Overview of Binocular Diplopia; Etiology, Assessment Methods, and Treatment Strategies
,
Abstract
Binocular diplopia is a challenging oculomotor disorder that significantly impacts patients' quality of life. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the etiology, diagnostic methods, and treatment strategies for binocular diplopia. Proper diagnosis begins with differentiating between monocular and binocular diplopia, followed by determining whether the cause is motor or sensory in nature. Diagnostic methods include detailed medical history, qualitative and quantitative assessment of diplopia, analysis using tools like the Haab Grid, evaluation of ocular motility, and assessment of head postures. The level of oculomotor defect should be investigated to differentiate between nuclear and supranuclear lesions. Treatment approaches are diverse and depend on the underlying cause. Functional strategies may include prismatic correction, which can provide immediate relief from diplopia. Surgical interventions are considered for cases of paralytic strabismus or when conservative measures are insufficient. The choice of treatment is guided by factors such as the etiology, duration, and severity of diplopia. Prismatic correction is often used as both a diagnostic tool and a treatment option, allowing for precise adjustment of eye alignment. In cases of acute diplopia, a systematic approach to diagnosis and appropriate identification of possible causes enables better patient management. This comprehensive approach to binocular diplopia, encompassing thorough diagnostic methods and a range of treatment strategies, aims to improve functional outcomes and enhance the quality of life for affected patients.
This study emphasizes the complexity of diplopia, distinguishing between monocular and binocular types, and motor and sensory forms. Management involves functional therapies, prismatic correction, and, if needed, botulinum toxin or surgery. Prompt evaluation and multidisciplinary collaboration are essential, particularly for neurological causes.
1. Beauchamp GR, Black BC, Coats DK, Enzenauer RW, Hutchinson AK, Saunders RA, et al. The management of strabismus in adults—III. The effects on disability. Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2005;9(5):455-9.
2. Glisson CC. Approach to diplopia. Continuum: Lifelong Learning in Neurology. 2019;25(5):1362-75.
3. LEVIN IM. Ocular torticollis in children. American Journal of Diseases of Children. 1932;44(5):1026-39.
4. Singh A, Parihar J, Maggon R, Kumar S, Mishra S, Badhani A. Chronic acquired ocular torticollis: A diagnostic dilemma. medical journal armed forces india. 2017;73(1):91-3.
5. Comer R, Dawson E, Plant G, Acheson J, Lee J. Causes and outcomes for patients presenting with diplopia to an eye casualty department. Eye. 2007;21(3):413-8.
6. Nazerian P, Vanni S, Tarocchi C, Portaccio E, Vannucci N, Para O, et al. Causes of diplopia in the emergency department: diagnostic accuracy of clinical assessment and of head computed tomography. European Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2014;21(2):118-24.
7. Dulayajinda D, Kosrirukvongs P, Songcharoen S. Causes of diplopia. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand= Chotmaihet Thangphaet. 1991;74(8):323-8.
8. Fincham E. Monocular diplopia. The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1963;47(12):705.
9. Records RE. Monocular diplopia. Survey of Ophthalmology. 1980;24(5):303-6.
10. IuZ R, Korniushina T. Monocular diplopia. Vestnik Oftalmologii. 1991;107(3):39-44.
11. Jain S. Diplopia: Diagnosis and management. Clinical Medicine. 2022;22(2):104.
12. Kumar N, Kaur S, Raj S, Lal V, Sukhija J. Causes and outcomes of patients presenting with diplopia: a hospital-based study. Neuro-Ophthalmology. 2021 Jul 4;45(4):238-45.
13. Sreedhar A, Menon A. Understanding and evaluating diplopia. Kerala Journal of Ophthalmology. 2019;31(2):102.
14. Wang Z, Zhu B, Fu L, Yan J. Etiology and clinical features of diplopia in south china: analysis of 303 cases. Frontiers in Neurology. 2022;12:2653.
15. Kernich CA. Diplopia. The Neurologist. 2006;12(4):229-30.
16. Kaeser P-F, Klainguti G. Management of diplopia secondary to neurosurgical injury of the orbital roof. Klinische Monatsblätter für Augenheilkunde. 2008;225(05):507-9.
17. Kim H-J, Kim H-J, Choi J-Y, Yang HK, Hwang J-M, Kim J-S. Diplopia: characteristics and etiologic distribution in a referral-based university hospital. Journal of Neurology. 2022:1-9.
18. Kawai M, Goseki T, Ishikawa H, Hoshina M, Shoji N. Causes, background, and characteristics of binocular diplopia in the elderly. Japanese journal of ophthalmology. 2018;62:659-66.
19. Sowka J. Neurogenic diplopia: paralysis of cranial nerves III, IV, and VI. Optometry Clinics: the Official Publication of the Prentice Society. 1996;5(3-4):53-76.
20. Cornblath WT. Diplopia due to ocular motor cranial neuropathies. CONTINUUM: Lifelong Learning in Neurology. 2014;20(4):966-80.
21. Apers R, Bierlaagh J. Indications and results of eye muscle surgery in thyroid ophthalmopathy. Ophthalmologica. 1976;173(3-4):171-9.
22. Flanders M. Restrictive strabismus: diagnosis and management. American Orthoptic Journal. 2014;64(1):54-63.
23. Kremmyda O, Frenzel C, Hüfner K, Goldschagg N, Brem C, Linn J, et al. Acute binocular diplopia: peripheral or central? Journal of neurology. 2020;267:136-42.
24. Pratt‐Johnson J, Tillson G. The loss of fusion in adults with intractable diplopia (central fusion disruption). Australian and New Zealand journal of ophthalmology. 1988;16(2):81-5.
25. Clark JT. Obstacles to fusion: Strabismus and diplopia. American Orthoptic Journal. 2008;58(1):14-7.
26. Sharma M, Hunter DG, editors. Diplopia after strabismus surgery. Seminars in Ophthalmology; 2018: Taylor & Francis.
27. Khan AO, Al-Shamsi H. Binocular diplopia following vision restoration in patients with keratoconus and sensory strabismus. Strabismus. 2008;16(1):19-22.
28. Merino P, Fuentes D, de Liaño PG, Ordonez M. Binocular diplopia in a tertiary hospital: aetiology, diagnosis and treatment. Archivos de la Sociedad Española de Oftalmología (English Edition). 2017;92(12):565-70.
29. Raucci U, Parisi P, Vanacore N, La Penna F, Ferro V, Calistri L, et al. Acute diplopia in the pediatric Emergency Department. A cohort multicenter Italian study. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology. 2017;21(5):722-9.
30. Kelbsch C, Besch D, Wilhelm H. Acute diplopia: Differential diagnosis and treatment options. Klinische Monatsblatter fur Augenheilkunde. 2017;234(11):1348-53.
31. Grenga PL, Reale G, Cofone C, Meduri A, Ceruti P, Grenga R. Hess area ratio and diplopia: evaluation of 30 patients undergoing surgical repair for orbital blow-out fracture. Ophthalmic Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery. 2009;25(2):123-5.
32. Yoo HS, Park E, Rhiu S, Chang H-J, Kim K, Yoo J, et al. A computerized red glass test for quantifying diplopia. BMC ophthalmology. 2017;17:1-6.
33. Clement R. Computer simulation of extraocular muscle co‐operation: an evaluation. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics. 1982;2(2):107-17.
34. Zhuang R, Sun H, Bian H. A new method of learning the function of the extraocular muscles. Clinical Anatomy.
35. Buettner U, Zee D. Vestibular testing in comatose patients. Archives of neurology. 1989;46(5):561-3.
36. FRACO ICF, DOBA JAL. Bell's phenomenon: a study of 508 patients. Australian Journal of Opthalmology. 1984;12(1):15-21.
37. Foster CA, Foster BD, Spindler J, Harris JP. Functional loss of the horizontal doll's eye reflex following unilateral vestibular lesions. The Laryngoscope. 1994;104(4):473-8.
38. Mustafa TA. The Bell’s phenomenon in newborns. Neurosciences Journal. 2005;10(1):41-3.
39. O’Colmain U, Gilmour C, MacEwen CJ. Acute–onset diplopia. Acta Ophthalmologica. 2014;92(4):382-6.
40. Oystreck DT, Lyons CJ. Comitant strabismus: Perspectives, present and future. Saudi Journal of Ophthalmology. 2012;26(3):265-70.
41. Burian HM, Capobianco NM. Monocular diplopia (binocular triplopia) in concomitant strabismus. AMA Archives of Ophthalmology. 1952;47(1):23-30.
42. Posner A, Schlossman A. Relation of diplopia to binocular vision in concomitant strabismus. AMA Archives of Ophthalmology. 1951;45(6):615-22.
43. Iliescu DA, Timaru CM, Alexe N, Gosav E, De Simone A, Batras M, et al. Management of diplopia. Romanian journal of ophthalmology. 2017;61(3):166.
44. Rucker JC, Tomsak RL. Binocular diplopia: a practical approach. The neurologist. 2005;11(2):98-110.
45. Suh SY, Clark RA, Le A, Demer JL. Extraocular muscle compartments in superior oblique palsy. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 2016;57(13):5535-40.
46. Harley RD. Paralytic strabismus in children: etiologic incidence and management of the third, fourth, and sixth nerve palsies. Ophthalmology. 1980;87(1):24-43.
47. Raza HK, Chen H, Chansysouphanthong T, Cui G. The aetiologies of the unilateral oculomotor nerve palsy: a review of the literature. Somatosensory & motor research. 2018;35(3-4):229-39.
48. Kaido T, Tanaka Y, Kanemoto Y, Katsuragi Y, Okura H. Traumatic oculomotor nerve palsy. Journal of clinical neuroscience. 2006;13(8):852-5.
49. Blake PY, Mark AS, Kattah J, Kolsky M. MR of oculomotor nerve palsy. American journal of neuroradiology. 1995;16(8):1665-72.
50. Yanovitch T, Buckley E. Diagnosis and management of third nerve palsy. Current opinion in ophthalmology. 2007;18(5):373-8.
51. BRAZIS PW, editor Localization of lesions of the oculomotor nerve: recent concepts. Mayo Clinic Proceedings; 1991: Elsevier.
52. Elder C, Hainline C, Galetta SL, Balcer LJ, Rucker JC. Isolated abducens nerve palsy: update on evaluation and diagnosis. Current neurology and neuroscience reports. 2016;16:1-7.
53. Geçirilmesi G. Review of a series with abducens nerve palsy. Turkish Neurosurgery. 2008;18(4):366-73.
54. Jung JS, Kim DH. Risk factors and prognosis of isolated ischemic third, fourth, or sixth cranial nerve palsies in the Korean population. Journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology. 2015;35(1):37-40.
55. Burgerman RS, Wolf AL, Kelman SE, Elsner H, Mirvis S, Sestokas AK. Traumatic trochlear nerve palsy diagnosed by magnetic resonance imaging: case report and review of the literature. Neurosurgery. 1989;25(6):978-81.
56. Prosst RL, Majetschak M. Traumatic unilateral trochlear nerve palsy. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery. 2007;62(6):E1-E3.
57. Choi K-D, Choi SY, Kim J-S, Choi J-H, Yang T-H, Oh S-Y, et al. Acquired ocular motor nerve palsy in neurology clinics: a prospective multicenter study. Journal of Clinical Neurology. 2019;15(2):221-7.
58. Diora JR, Plager DA. Sudden-onset trochlear nerve palsy: clinical characteristics and treatment implications. Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2019;23(6):321. e1-. e5.
59. Khanam S, Sood G. Trochlear Nerve Palsy. 2020.
60. Mehlan J, Schüttauf F. Infranuclear Eye Movement Disorders. Klinische Monatsblätter für Augenheilkunde. 2021;238(11):1178-85.
61. Altintas A. Trochlear nerve palsy: a review of etiology, incidence, diagnostic methods, and treatment alternatives. Arch Neurol Neurosci. 2020;7:1-5.
62. Smith SV, Lee AG. Update on ocular myasthenia gravis. Neurologic Clinics. 2017;35(1):115-23.
63. Holmes JM, Leske DA, Kupersmith MJ. New methods for quantifying diplopia. Ophthalmology. 2005;112(11):2035-9.
64. Nair AG, Patil-Chhablani P, Venkatramani DV, Gandhi RA. Ocular myasthenia gravis: a review. Indian journal of ophthalmology. 2014;62(10):985.
65. Al-Haidar M, Benatar M, Kaminski HJ. Ocular myasthenia. Neurologic clinics. 2018;36(2):241-51.
66. Peeler CE, De Lott LB, Nagia L, Lemos J, Eggenberger ER, Cornblath WT. Clinical utility of acetylcholine receptor antibody testing in ocular myasthenia gravis. JAMA neurology. 2015;72(10):1170-4.
67. Benatar M, Kaminski H. Medical and surgical treatment for ocular myasthenia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2006(2).
68. Fortin E, Cestari DM, Weinberg DH. Ocular myasthenia gravis: an update on diagnosis and treatment. Current opinion in ophthalmology. 2018;29(6):477-84.
69. Gunton KB. Prism use in adult diplopia. Current Opinion in Ophthalmology. 2012;23(5):400-4.
70. Flanders M, Sarkis N. Fresnel membrane prisms: clinical experience. Canadian journal of ophthalmology Journal canadien d'ophtalmologie. 1999;34(6):335-40.
71. Vicente GV. Prisms in Ophthalmic Optics. Optics for the New Millennium: An Absolute Review Textbook: Springer; 2022. p. 15-32.
72. Tamhankar MA, Ying G-s, Volpe NJ. Success of prisms in the management of diplopia due to fourth nerve palsy. Journal of neuro-ophthalmology: the official journal of the North American Neuro-Ophthalmology Society. 2011;31(3):206.
73. Hatt SR, Leske DA, Liebermann L, Holmes JM. Successful treatment of diplopia with prism improves health-related quality of life. American journal of ophthalmology. 2014;157(6):1209-13.
74. Singman EL, Matta NS, Silbert DI. Nonsurgical treatment of neurologic diplopia. American Orthoptic Journal. 2013;63(1):63-8.
75. Wahid A, Nossier A, Saif M, Taher S, Abouelnaga W. Physical therapy interventions for reduction of ocular deviation after strabismus surgery. Physiotherapy Quarterly. 2022;30(1):33-8.
76. Ludwig IH, Clark RA, Stager Sr DR. New strabismus surgical techniques. Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2013;17(1):79-88.
77. Phillips PH, editor Treatment of diplopia. Seminars in neurology; 2007: Copyright© 2007 by Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc., 333 Seventh Avenue, New ….
78. Granet DB, Hodgson N, Godfrey KJ, Ventura R, Kikkawa DO, Levi L, et al. Chemodenervation of extraocular muscles with botulinum toxin in thyroid eye disease. Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology. 2016;254:999-1003.
79. Eckstein A, Esser J, Oeverhaus M, Saeed P, Jellema HM. Surgical treatment of diplopia in Graves orbitopathy patients. Ophthalmic Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery. 2018;34(4S):S75-S84.
80. Miller AM. Torsional diplopia. American Orthoptic Journal. 2015;65(1):21-5.
81. Escuder AG, Kazlas MA, Heidary G, Hunter DG, Zurakowski D, Dagi LR. Incidence of symptomatic vertical and torsional diplopia after superior rectus transposition for esotropic Duane syndrome and abducens nerve palsy. Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2020;24(5):270. e1-. e5.
82. Garrity JA, Saggau DD, Gorman CA, Bartley GB, Fatourechi V, Hardwig PW, et al. Torsional diplopia after transantral orbital decompression and extraocular muscle surgery associated with Graves' orbitopathy. American journal of ophthalmology. 1992;113(4):363-73.
83. Serafino M, Fogagnolo P, Trivedi RH, Saunders RA, Nucci P. Torsional diplopia after orbital decompression and strabismus surgery. European journal of ophthalmology. 2010;20(2):437-41.
84. Peragallo JH, Newman NJ, editors. Diplopia—An Update. Seminars in Neurology; 2016: Thieme Medical Publishers.
85. Brazis PW, Lee AG, editors. Binocular vertical diplopia. Mayo Clinic Proceedings; 1998: Elsevier.
86. Marsh JD, Durkin MW, Hack AE, Markowitz BB, Cheeseman EW. Accuracy of double Maddox rod with induced hypertropia in normal subjects. American Orthoptic Journal. 2014;64(1):76-80.
87. Ruttum M, Von Noorden G. The Bagolini striated lens test for cyclotropia. Documenta Ophthalmologica. 1984;58:131-9.
88. von Noorden GK. Clinical and theoretical aspects of cyclotropia. SLACK Incorporated Thorofare, NJ; 1984. p. 126-32.
89. Bartiss MJ. Nonsurgical treatment of diplopia. Current opinion in ophthalmology. 2018;29(5):381-4.
90. McBain HB, Au CK, Hancox J, MacKenzie KA, Ezra DG, Adams GG, et al. The impact of strabismus on quality of life in adults with and without diplopia: a systematic review. Survey of Ophthalmology. 2014;59(2):185-91.
2. Glisson CC. Approach to diplopia. Continuum: Lifelong Learning in Neurology. 2019;25(5):1362-75.
3. LEVIN IM. Ocular torticollis in children. American Journal of Diseases of Children. 1932;44(5):1026-39.
4. Singh A, Parihar J, Maggon R, Kumar S, Mishra S, Badhani A. Chronic acquired ocular torticollis: A diagnostic dilemma. medical journal armed forces india. 2017;73(1):91-3.
5. Comer R, Dawson E, Plant G, Acheson J, Lee J. Causes and outcomes for patients presenting with diplopia to an eye casualty department. Eye. 2007;21(3):413-8.
6. Nazerian P, Vanni S, Tarocchi C, Portaccio E, Vannucci N, Para O, et al. Causes of diplopia in the emergency department: diagnostic accuracy of clinical assessment and of head computed tomography. European Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2014;21(2):118-24.
7. Dulayajinda D, Kosrirukvongs P, Songcharoen S. Causes of diplopia. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand= Chotmaihet Thangphaet. 1991;74(8):323-8.
8. Fincham E. Monocular diplopia. The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1963;47(12):705.
9. Records RE. Monocular diplopia. Survey of Ophthalmology. 1980;24(5):303-6.
10. IuZ R, Korniushina T. Monocular diplopia. Vestnik Oftalmologii. 1991;107(3):39-44.
11. Jain S. Diplopia: Diagnosis and management. Clinical Medicine. 2022;22(2):104.
12. Kumar N, Kaur S, Raj S, Lal V, Sukhija J. Causes and outcomes of patients presenting with diplopia: a hospital-based study. Neuro-Ophthalmology. 2021 Jul 4;45(4):238-45.
13. Sreedhar A, Menon A. Understanding and evaluating diplopia. Kerala Journal of Ophthalmology. 2019;31(2):102.
14. Wang Z, Zhu B, Fu L, Yan J. Etiology and clinical features of diplopia in south china: analysis of 303 cases. Frontiers in Neurology. 2022;12:2653.
15. Kernich CA. Diplopia. The Neurologist. 2006;12(4):229-30.
16. Kaeser P-F, Klainguti G. Management of diplopia secondary to neurosurgical injury of the orbital roof. Klinische Monatsblätter für Augenheilkunde. 2008;225(05):507-9.
17. Kim H-J, Kim H-J, Choi J-Y, Yang HK, Hwang J-M, Kim J-S. Diplopia: characteristics and etiologic distribution in a referral-based university hospital. Journal of Neurology. 2022:1-9.
18. Kawai M, Goseki T, Ishikawa H, Hoshina M, Shoji N. Causes, background, and characteristics of binocular diplopia in the elderly. Japanese journal of ophthalmology. 2018;62:659-66.
19. Sowka J. Neurogenic diplopia: paralysis of cranial nerves III, IV, and VI. Optometry Clinics: the Official Publication of the Prentice Society. 1996;5(3-4):53-76.
20. Cornblath WT. Diplopia due to ocular motor cranial neuropathies. CONTINUUM: Lifelong Learning in Neurology. 2014;20(4):966-80.
21. Apers R, Bierlaagh J. Indications and results of eye muscle surgery in thyroid ophthalmopathy. Ophthalmologica. 1976;173(3-4):171-9.
22. Flanders M. Restrictive strabismus: diagnosis and management. American Orthoptic Journal. 2014;64(1):54-63.
23. Kremmyda O, Frenzel C, Hüfner K, Goldschagg N, Brem C, Linn J, et al. Acute binocular diplopia: peripheral or central? Journal of neurology. 2020;267:136-42.
24. Pratt‐Johnson J, Tillson G. The loss of fusion in adults with intractable diplopia (central fusion disruption). Australian and New Zealand journal of ophthalmology. 1988;16(2):81-5.
25. Clark JT. Obstacles to fusion: Strabismus and diplopia. American Orthoptic Journal. 2008;58(1):14-7.
26. Sharma M, Hunter DG, editors. Diplopia after strabismus surgery. Seminars in Ophthalmology; 2018: Taylor & Francis.
27. Khan AO, Al-Shamsi H. Binocular diplopia following vision restoration in patients with keratoconus and sensory strabismus. Strabismus. 2008;16(1):19-22.
28. Merino P, Fuentes D, de Liaño PG, Ordonez M. Binocular diplopia in a tertiary hospital: aetiology, diagnosis and treatment. Archivos de la Sociedad Española de Oftalmología (English Edition). 2017;92(12):565-70.
29. Raucci U, Parisi P, Vanacore N, La Penna F, Ferro V, Calistri L, et al. Acute diplopia in the pediatric Emergency Department. A cohort multicenter Italian study. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology. 2017;21(5):722-9.
30. Kelbsch C, Besch D, Wilhelm H. Acute diplopia: Differential diagnosis and treatment options. Klinische Monatsblatter fur Augenheilkunde. 2017;234(11):1348-53.
31. Grenga PL, Reale G, Cofone C, Meduri A, Ceruti P, Grenga R. Hess area ratio and diplopia: evaluation of 30 patients undergoing surgical repair for orbital blow-out fracture. Ophthalmic Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery. 2009;25(2):123-5.
32. Yoo HS, Park E, Rhiu S, Chang H-J, Kim K, Yoo J, et al. A computerized red glass test for quantifying diplopia. BMC ophthalmology. 2017;17:1-6.
33. Clement R. Computer simulation of extraocular muscle co‐operation: an evaluation. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics. 1982;2(2):107-17.
34. Zhuang R, Sun H, Bian H. A new method of learning the function of the extraocular muscles. Clinical Anatomy.
35. Buettner U, Zee D. Vestibular testing in comatose patients. Archives of neurology. 1989;46(5):561-3.
36. FRACO ICF, DOBA JAL. Bell's phenomenon: a study of 508 patients. Australian Journal of Opthalmology. 1984;12(1):15-21.
37. Foster CA, Foster BD, Spindler J, Harris JP. Functional loss of the horizontal doll's eye reflex following unilateral vestibular lesions. The Laryngoscope. 1994;104(4):473-8.
38. Mustafa TA. The Bell’s phenomenon in newborns. Neurosciences Journal. 2005;10(1):41-3.
39. O’Colmain U, Gilmour C, MacEwen CJ. Acute–onset diplopia. Acta Ophthalmologica. 2014;92(4):382-6.
40. Oystreck DT, Lyons CJ. Comitant strabismus: Perspectives, present and future. Saudi Journal of Ophthalmology. 2012;26(3):265-70.
41. Burian HM, Capobianco NM. Monocular diplopia (binocular triplopia) in concomitant strabismus. AMA Archives of Ophthalmology. 1952;47(1):23-30.
42. Posner A, Schlossman A. Relation of diplopia to binocular vision in concomitant strabismus. AMA Archives of Ophthalmology. 1951;45(6):615-22.
43. Iliescu DA, Timaru CM, Alexe N, Gosav E, De Simone A, Batras M, et al. Management of diplopia. Romanian journal of ophthalmology. 2017;61(3):166.
44. Rucker JC, Tomsak RL. Binocular diplopia: a practical approach. The neurologist. 2005;11(2):98-110.
45. Suh SY, Clark RA, Le A, Demer JL. Extraocular muscle compartments in superior oblique palsy. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 2016;57(13):5535-40.
46. Harley RD. Paralytic strabismus in children: etiologic incidence and management of the third, fourth, and sixth nerve palsies. Ophthalmology. 1980;87(1):24-43.
47. Raza HK, Chen H, Chansysouphanthong T, Cui G. The aetiologies of the unilateral oculomotor nerve palsy: a review of the literature. Somatosensory & motor research. 2018;35(3-4):229-39.
48. Kaido T, Tanaka Y, Kanemoto Y, Katsuragi Y, Okura H. Traumatic oculomotor nerve palsy. Journal of clinical neuroscience. 2006;13(8):852-5.
49. Blake PY, Mark AS, Kattah J, Kolsky M. MR of oculomotor nerve palsy. American journal of neuroradiology. 1995;16(8):1665-72.
50. Yanovitch T, Buckley E. Diagnosis and management of third nerve palsy. Current opinion in ophthalmology. 2007;18(5):373-8.
51. BRAZIS PW, editor Localization of lesions of the oculomotor nerve: recent concepts. Mayo Clinic Proceedings; 1991: Elsevier.
52. Elder C, Hainline C, Galetta SL, Balcer LJ, Rucker JC. Isolated abducens nerve palsy: update on evaluation and diagnosis. Current neurology and neuroscience reports. 2016;16:1-7.
53. Geçirilmesi G. Review of a series with abducens nerve palsy. Turkish Neurosurgery. 2008;18(4):366-73.
54. Jung JS, Kim DH. Risk factors and prognosis of isolated ischemic third, fourth, or sixth cranial nerve palsies in the Korean population. Journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology. 2015;35(1):37-40.
55. Burgerman RS, Wolf AL, Kelman SE, Elsner H, Mirvis S, Sestokas AK. Traumatic trochlear nerve palsy diagnosed by magnetic resonance imaging: case report and review of the literature. Neurosurgery. 1989;25(6):978-81.
56. Prosst RL, Majetschak M. Traumatic unilateral trochlear nerve palsy. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery. 2007;62(6):E1-E3.
57. Choi K-D, Choi SY, Kim J-S, Choi J-H, Yang T-H, Oh S-Y, et al. Acquired ocular motor nerve palsy in neurology clinics: a prospective multicenter study. Journal of Clinical Neurology. 2019;15(2):221-7.
58. Diora JR, Plager DA. Sudden-onset trochlear nerve palsy: clinical characteristics and treatment implications. Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2019;23(6):321. e1-. e5.
59. Khanam S, Sood G. Trochlear Nerve Palsy. 2020.
60. Mehlan J, Schüttauf F. Infranuclear Eye Movement Disorders. Klinische Monatsblätter für Augenheilkunde. 2021;238(11):1178-85.
61. Altintas A. Trochlear nerve palsy: a review of etiology, incidence, diagnostic methods, and treatment alternatives. Arch Neurol Neurosci. 2020;7:1-5.
62. Smith SV, Lee AG. Update on ocular myasthenia gravis. Neurologic Clinics. 2017;35(1):115-23.
63. Holmes JM, Leske DA, Kupersmith MJ. New methods for quantifying diplopia. Ophthalmology. 2005;112(11):2035-9.
64. Nair AG, Patil-Chhablani P, Venkatramani DV, Gandhi RA. Ocular myasthenia gravis: a review. Indian journal of ophthalmology. 2014;62(10):985.
65. Al-Haidar M, Benatar M, Kaminski HJ. Ocular myasthenia. Neurologic clinics. 2018;36(2):241-51.
66. Peeler CE, De Lott LB, Nagia L, Lemos J, Eggenberger ER, Cornblath WT. Clinical utility of acetylcholine receptor antibody testing in ocular myasthenia gravis. JAMA neurology. 2015;72(10):1170-4.
67. Benatar M, Kaminski H. Medical and surgical treatment for ocular myasthenia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2006(2).
68. Fortin E, Cestari DM, Weinberg DH. Ocular myasthenia gravis: an update on diagnosis and treatment. Current opinion in ophthalmology. 2018;29(6):477-84.
69. Gunton KB. Prism use in adult diplopia. Current Opinion in Ophthalmology. 2012;23(5):400-4.
70. Flanders M, Sarkis N. Fresnel membrane prisms: clinical experience. Canadian journal of ophthalmology Journal canadien d'ophtalmologie. 1999;34(6):335-40.
71. Vicente GV. Prisms in Ophthalmic Optics. Optics for the New Millennium: An Absolute Review Textbook: Springer; 2022. p. 15-32.
72. Tamhankar MA, Ying G-s, Volpe NJ. Success of prisms in the management of diplopia due to fourth nerve palsy. Journal of neuro-ophthalmology: the official journal of the North American Neuro-Ophthalmology Society. 2011;31(3):206.
73. Hatt SR, Leske DA, Liebermann L, Holmes JM. Successful treatment of diplopia with prism improves health-related quality of life. American journal of ophthalmology. 2014;157(6):1209-13.
74. Singman EL, Matta NS, Silbert DI. Nonsurgical treatment of neurologic diplopia. American Orthoptic Journal. 2013;63(1):63-8.
75. Wahid A, Nossier A, Saif M, Taher S, Abouelnaga W. Physical therapy interventions for reduction of ocular deviation after strabismus surgery. Physiotherapy Quarterly. 2022;30(1):33-8.
76. Ludwig IH, Clark RA, Stager Sr DR. New strabismus surgical techniques. Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2013;17(1):79-88.
77. Phillips PH, editor Treatment of diplopia. Seminars in neurology; 2007: Copyright© 2007 by Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc., 333 Seventh Avenue, New ….
78. Granet DB, Hodgson N, Godfrey KJ, Ventura R, Kikkawa DO, Levi L, et al. Chemodenervation of extraocular muscles with botulinum toxin in thyroid eye disease. Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology. 2016;254:999-1003.
79. Eckstein A, Esser J, Oeverhaus M, Saeed P, Jellema HM. Surgical treatment of diplopia in Graves orbitopathy patients. Ophthalmic Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery. 2018;34(4S):S75-S84.
80. Miller AM. Torsional diplopia. American Orthoptic Journal. 2015;65(1):21-5.
81. Escuder AG, Kazlas MA, Heidary G, Hunter DG, Zurakowski D, Dagi LR. Incidence of symptomatic vertical and torsional diplopia after superior rectus transposition for esotropic Duane syndrome and abducens nerve palsy. Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2020;24(5):270. e1-. e5.
82. Garrity JA, Saggau DD, Gorman CA, Bartley GB, Fatourechi V, Hardwig PW, et al. Torsional diplopia after transantral orbital decompression and extraocular muscle surgery associated with Graves' orbitopathy. American journal of ophthalmology. 1992;113(4):363-73.
83. Serafino M, Fogagnolo P, Trivedi RH, Saunders RA, Nucci P. Torsional diplopia after orbital decompression and strabismus surgery. European journal of ophthalmology. 2010;20(2):437-41.
84. Peragallo JH, Newman NJ, editors. Diplopia—An Update. Seminars in Neurology; 2016: Thieme Medical Publishers.
85. Brazis PW, Lee AG, editors. Binocular vertical diplopia. Mayo Clinic Proceedings; 1998: Elsevier.
86. Marsh JD, Durkin MW, Hack AE, Markowitz BB, Cheeseman EW. Accuracy of double Maddox rod with induced hypertropia in normal subjects. American Orthoptic Journal. 2014;64(1):76-80.
87. Ruttum M, Von Noorden G. The Bagolini striated lens test for cyclotropia. Documenta Ophthalmologica. 1984;58:131-9.
88. von Noorden GK. Clinical and theoretical aspects of cyclotropia. SLACK Incorporated Thorofare, NJ; 1984. p. 126-32.
89. Bartiss MJ. Nonsurgical treatment of diplopia. Current opinion in ophthalmology. 2018;29(5):381-4.
90. McBain HB, Au CK, Hancox J, MacKenzie KA, Ezra DG, Adams GG, et al. The impact of strabismus on quality of life in adults with and without diplopia: a systematic review. Survey of Ophthalmology. 2014;59(2):185-91.
| Issue | Articles in Press | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| Keywords | ||
| Diplopia, Head tilt, Vertical deviation, Horizontal deviation, Strabismus surgery | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
|
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Shakor Y, Bahreini R, Majdi A. Overview of Binocular Diplopia; Etiology, Assessment Methods, and Treatment Strategies. jmr. 2025;(-).
